The
history of adult education in the United States is a “unique combination of elements
of knowledge from varying backgrounds and concerns of different thinkers.”
(Jarvis, 1987, p.301) The decades between 1900-1930 were no exception to this.
With the invention of the U.S. census, both World Wars, desegregation of the
military, and the Great Depression the social backdrop to this time period was
rampant with a variety of factors impacting the development of adult education
in the U.S. (America's Best History)
The people at the forefront of adult
education brought with them a complex set of motivations and objectives which
impacted the development of adult education. The impact can still be seen today
at the core of adult basic education.
This
time period can be characterized by four significant influences or movements in
relation to adult education – the role of the U.S. Military, the education
professionalization movement, the Americanization movement, and the illiteracy movement.
(Sticht, 2007) These influences will be discussed in further detail, including
the people and organization which arose as leaders, in addition to the impact
each had on adult education.
The U.S. conducted its first census on
June 1, 1900. (America's Best History, 1900-1909) A decade later, the 1910 census
revealed that a surplus of five million adults in the U.S. were illiterate –
the demographics recorded ranged from native-born white (3%), foreign-born
white (12.7%), native-born black and other (30.5%). (Alston, 2017, p.186) This
revelation lead to state and federal agencies, as well as grassroots leaders,
professional organizations, and concerned citizens joining together to fight illiteracy.
As will be discussed later, each group found motivation of a different kind,
yet their fight was linked with the underlying objective to eradicate illiteracy.
There were three main motivators which
contributed to the development of adult education that arose through the fight
to eradicate illiteracy. One, the
professionalization of adult education. Another, helping the least educated
acquire basic literacy and language skills. Finally, the desire to protect the
U.S. by educating the people in order to preserve human resources. (Stitch)
On April 6, 1917 the U.S. declared war
on Germany and officially joined the allies in World War I. (America's Best
History, 1910-1919) This led to the creation of the first standardized tests.
These tests were created to assess literates, low literates, illiterates, and
non-English speaking recruits to the army. From these standardized tests came
two initial outcomes.
First, the notion that foreign-born
residents needed to be “Americanized.” This led to the formation of Development
Battalions which provided literacy education being provided for both native and
foreign-born military men. Second, after the results of the tests came out
there were many who considered the results to be proof that there were those ‘uneducable’
and not capable of benefitting from further education. The Development
Battalions proved that those who had been considered ‘uneducable’ were capable
of learning basic literacy skills. These results would prove to be extremely
influential.
On December 8, 1941 – one day after
the attack on Pearl Harbor – America joined World War II by declaring war on
Japan. At this time, another influx of recruits to the military occurred. Many of those joining had their education
disrupted in order to fight for their nation. In response to this, the first
GED test was developed in 1942. The test was created in order to provide
military men the opportunity to obtain a high school equivalency.
As Sticht (2007) notes, today large
portions of resources are dedicated to helping adults acquire a credential.
These efforts can be clearly seen to have their origins in the development of the
standardized tests of WWI and in the efforts to provide for both the
educational and vocational needs of servicemen before and after WWII.
Influence of Educational
Professionalization
On January 28, 1902, Andrew Carnegies
donated ten million dollars to develop the Carnegie Institution in Washington,
D.C. (America's Best History, 1900-1909). In 1911, he went on to found the
Carnegie Corporation in effort to “promote the diffusion of knowledge among the
population.” (Stitch, 2007, p.13)
Due to this mission, in 1926, the
Carnegie Corporation committed funding to the America Association of Adult
Education (AAAE), a new adult education organization that “conducted research,
experimental projects, and other such activities that would advance adult
education.” (Stitch, 2007, p. 13) Also important to note, the AAAE published
the Journal of Adult Education and is largely responsible for the promotion of
the term adult education to “bring coherence to the field by giving it a name.”
(Stubblefield & Keane, 1994, p. 193)
Had it not been for Frederick P.
Keppel, the Carnegie Corporation Board of Trustees and a former assistant
secretary of war (WWI), this relationship between the Carnegie Corporation and
the AAAE may not have been developed. Once again crediting the military with a
major influence on the development of adult education, it was Keppel’s
knowledge of the educational programs provided to soldiers that lead him to working
with adult education advisories and attending conferences. It was through these
efforts that he was able lead Carnegie Corporation to commit the funds to the
AAAE. (Stitch, 2007)
Another major organization credited
with the growth of adult education is the National Education Association (NEA).
Established in the late 1800s, the NEA also recognized the issue illiteracy in
the U.S. and would later join forces with the AAAE to continue its fight
against illiteracy by support professionals in the field.
Influence of ‘Americanization’
As
previously mentioned, the 1910 census brought to light that an incredible 30%
of the 5 million plus illiterate people in the U.S. were foreign-born. (Alston,
2017, p. 186) This led to two developments. From 1915-1919 the Federal Bureau of Education
supported groups interested in Americanization education. Additionally, in
1917, the government banned immigrants (ages 16+) from entering the U.S. if
they did not have literacy in any language. It also led to the push of
immigrant education in effort to Americanize those foreign-born who were already
residing in the country.
Another important
organization to the Americanization movement was the American Library
Association (ALA). The ALA “established its Committee on Work with the Foreign
Born in 1918 to teach English to immigrants…and to prepare them for
naturalization.” (Alston, 2017, p.187)
IN 1920,
the NEA formed the Department of Immigration Education to further assist those
organizations willing to work on Americanization education. This title ‘Department
of Immigration Education’ was contested by such influencers as Cora Wilson
Stewart (discussed more later) who believed in the education of all illiterates
– primarily those native-born and undereducated – not just those foreign-born.
In 1922,
Elizabeth Cleveland Moss, an educator in North Carolina, published Citizens’ Reference Book: A Text and Reference
Book for Pupils and Teachers in Community Schools for Adult Beginners. This
book would be revised again and again to include lessons in arithmetic as well “to
enable the adult pupil to address the problems that came up in everyday life
and to solve them with accuracy and intelligence.” (Alston, 2017, p.190)
Influence of the Illiteracy
Movement
At the
same time of the Americanization movement, there were those leading the cause
for native-born literacy to be at the forefront of attention – not just
foreign-born, as was the focus of the Americanization movement. This movement
was known as the Illiteracy Movement. (Stitch, 2007)
When mentioning the grassroots leaders
of the illiteracy movement, one must include Cora Wilson Stewart and, following
in her footsteps, Elizabeth Cleveland Moss (as mentioned above). Stewart was among those who contested the NEA’s
name the Department of Immigration Education due to its focus solely on
foreign-born illiterates, as opposed to all illiteracy.
Stewart
was motivated to end illiteracy in the U.S. These efforts began with the development of
Moonlight Schools throughout the state of Kentucky in 1911. Not only did
Stewart recognize the need for adult literacy, but she also recognized that
adults needed materials appropriate for adults and their learning needs. She
developed a reading curriculum based off of the news. Furthermore, she began
teaching literacy with teaching adults to write their own names. She believed
this would give them the confidence they needed to progress in their efforts to
become literate.
Stewart also
started the National Illiteracy Crusade whose efforts were aimed “to wipe out
illiteracy by 1930.” (Stitch, 2007, p.16)
The mission
continued to grow. Stewart gained the attention of the governor of Kentucky,
who was inspired to begin an illiteracy commission in 1914. In 1918, Stewart
caught the attention of the NEA president Mary C.L. Bradford who then
established a committee on illiteracy.
Meanwhile,
Moss helped to publish reference books and bulletins aimed at helping teachers
of adult immigrants and native illiterates. In 1927 and 1928, a two-part bulletin
was released that “Teachers of both foreign-born and native-born adult
illiterates found material of value.” (Alston, 2017, p.193)
By 1929, the illiteracy movement had
gained national attention. This led to President
Herbert Hoover appointing the National Advisory Committee on Illiteracy. Unfortunately,
this was the same year stock market crashed. (America's Best History, 1920-1929)
The crash lead to the Great Depression, and once again the focus shifted from
Americanization and illiteracy to the “conservation of human resources.”
(Stitch, 2007, ps. 16-17)
Influence of the Human
Resources Conservation Movement
When the
stock market crashed in 1929, this marked the beginning of the Great
Depression, and the development of the New Deal. The New Deal brought with it a
plethora of programs aimed at providing education towards employment as well as
employing teachers to do the educating. Of the programs developed, there are two
worthy of note here. Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) in 1933, the Works
Progress Administration (WPA) in 1935.
The CCC
was developed to provide programs for unemployed and undereducated men. The WPA
was to provide work for the unemployed teachers. Similar to Stewart’s creation
of relevant materials, the WPA teachers created materials aligned to “adult-oriented
content on topics such as health, safety, work, and family life.” (Stitch,
2007, p. 17)
Despite
being able to claim more than 1 million people had been taught to read and
write, the WPA was ended in 1941 because of the demand for workers due to the
WWII.
It was
at this time that (then General) Dwight D. Eisenhower voiced his concern “that
poorly educated, functionally illiterate adults were a threat to national
security, a drain on America’s industrial productivity, and a general waste of
human talent.” (Stitch, 2007, p. 17)
The education
of adults switched focus from “Americanization” and a fight against illiteracy,
and became one of necessity for the well-being of the industrial productivity
and safety of America. This movement would take on greater force in the 50s.
The most
obvious implications from the above period of time is the influence that
remains in modern day ABE programs. The standardization of tests, fight for
professional recognition and need for the field of adult education, as well as
the struggle between foreign-born education versus native-born, and the
lingering effects of the Human Resource Conservation are all still prevalent
today.
Standardized tests are still used for
both native-born and foreign-born to measure their literacy and quite often – though
determined inappropriately – their intelligence. These tests and the “measurable
skills gains” made on them are what determine federal funding for the
continuation of adult education programs.
The fight for legitimacy of adult education
and its professionals can be seen if one were to study the constant battle ground
that is legislative movements in regards to funding of adult education as well
as under which department it is held - the Department of Education versus the
Department of Workforce Development.
The current status of adult education
under the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) can be directly
linked the ideas of the Human Resource Conservation movement. The goal of WIOA
and similar funding streams (such as Integrated Education and Technology – IET)
is not only to bind adult education programs to provide services that provide
education in areas of soft skills and workforce development, but also
necessitate that technical trainings are linked to the needs of the state and
federal government – giving further evidence of this concept of humans as
resources.
