1900-1930: A Thirty-Year History of Adult/Community Education in the U.S.

Name	Commented On
Amelia Boggess	Micah Maxwell: Technology Period in Adult Education (1989-2019)

1900-1930: A Thirty-Year History of Adult/Community Education in the U.S.

by Amelia Boggess 

Introduction

            The history of adult education in the United States is a “unique combination of elements of knowledge from varying backgrounds and concerns of different thinkers.” (Jarvis, 1987, p.301) The decades between 1900-1930 were no exception to this. With the invention of the U.S. census, both World Wars, desegregation of the military, and the Great Depression the social backdrop to this time period was rampant with a variety of factors impacting the development of adult education in the U.S. (America's Best History)

The people at the forefront of adult education brought with them a complex set of motivations and objectives which impacted the development of adult education. The impact can still be seen today at the core of adult basic education.

            This time period can be characterized by four significant influences or movements in relation to adult education – the role of the U.S. Military, the education professionalization movement, the Americanization movement, and the illiteracy movement. (Sticht, 2007) These influences will be discussed in further detail, including the people and organization which arose as leaders, in addition to the impact each had on adult education.

Highlights

The U.S. conducted its first census on June 1, 1900. (America's Best History, 1900-1909) A decade later, the 1910 census revealed that a surplus of five million adults in the U.S. were illiterate – the demographics recorded ranged from native-born white (3%), foreign-born white (12.7%), native-born black and other (30.5%). (Alston, 2017, p.186) This revelation lead to state and federal agencies, as well as grassroots leaders, professional organizations, and concerned citizens joining together to fight illiteracy. As will be discussed later, each group found motivation of a different kind, yet their fight was linked with the underlying objective to eradicate illiteracy.

There were three main motivators which contributed to the development of adult education that arose through the fight to eradicate illiteracy.  One, the professionalization of adult education. Another, helping the least educated acquire basic literacy and language skills. Finally, the desire to protect the U.S. by educating the people in order to preserve human resources. (Stitch)

Military Influence

On April 6, 1917 the U.S. declared war on Germany and officially joined the allies in World War I. (America's Best History, 1910-1919) This led to the creation of the first standardized tests. These tests were created to assess literates, low literates, illiterates, and non-English speaking recruits to the army. From these standardized tests came two initial outcomes.

First, the notion that foreign-born residents needed to be “Americanized.” This led to the formation of Development Battalions which provided literacy education being provided for both native and foreign-born military men. Second, after the results of the tests came out there were many who considered the results to be proof that there were those ‘uneducable’ and not capable of benefitting from further education. The Development Battalions proved that those who had been considered ‘uneducable’ were capable of learning basic literacy skills. These results would prove to be extremely influential.

On December 8, 1941 – one day after the attack on Pearl Harbor – America joined World War II by declaring war on Japan. At this time, another influx of recruits to the military occurred.  Many of those joining had their education disrupted in order to fight for their nation. In response to this, the first GED test was developed in 1942. The test was created in order to provide military men the opportunity to obtain a high school equivalency.  

As Sticht (2007) notes, today large portions of resources are dedicated to helping adults acquire a credential. These efforts can be clearly seen to have their origins in the development of the standardized tests of WWI and in the efforts to provide for both the educational and vocational needs of servicemen before and after WWII.

Influence of Educational Professionalization

On January 28, 1902, Andrew Carnegies donated ten million dollars to develop the Carnegie Institution in Washington, D.C. (America's Best History, 1900-1909). In 1911, he went on to found the Carnegie Corporation in effort to “promote the diffusion of knowledge among the population.” (Stitch, 2007, p.13)

Due to this mission, in 1926, the Carnegie Corporation committed funding to the America Association of Adult Education (AAAE), a new adult education organization that “conducted research, experimental projects, and other such activities that would advance adult education.” (Stitch, 2007, p. 13) Also important to note, the AAAE published the Journal of Adult Education and is largely responsible for the promotion of the term adult education to “bring coherence to the field by giving it a name.” (Stubblefield & Keane, 1994, p. 193)

Had it not been for Frederick P. Keppel, the Carnegie Corporation Board of Trustees and a former assistant secretary of war (WWI), this relationship between the Carnegie Corporation and the AAAE may not have been developed. Once again crediting the military with a major influence on the development of adult education, it was Keppel’s knowledge of the educational programs provided to soldiers that lead him to working with adult education advisories and attending conferences. It was through these efforts that he was able lead Carnegie Corporation to commit the funds to the AAAE. (Stitch, 2007)

Another major organization credited with the growth of adult education is the National Education Association (NEA). Established in the late 1800s, the NEA also recognized the issue illiteracy in the U.S. and would later join forces with the AAAE to continue its fight against illiteracy by support professionals in the field.

Influence of ‘Americanization’

            As previously mentioned, the 1910 census brought to light that an incredible 30% of the 5 million plus illiterate people in the U.S. were foreign-born. (Alston, 2017, p. 186) This led to two developments.  From 1915-1919 the Federal Bureau of Education supported groups interested in Americanization education. Additionally, in 1917, the government banned immigrants (ages 16+) from entering the U.S. if they did not have literacy in any language. It also led to the push of immigrant education in effort to Americanize those foreign-born who were already residing in the country.

            Another important organization to the Americanization movement was the American Library Association (ALA). The ALA “established its Committee on Work with the Foreign Born in 1918 to teach English to immigrants…and to prepare them for naturalization.” (Alston, 2017, p.187)

            IN 1920, the NEA formed the Department of Immigration Education to further assist those organizations willing to work on Americanization education. This title ‘Department of Immigration Education’ was contested by such influencers as Cora Wilson Stewart (discussed more later) who believed in the education of all illiterates – primarily those native-born and undereducated – not just those foreign-born.

            In 1922, Elizabeth Cleveland Moss, an educator in North Carolina, published Citizens’ Reference Book: A Text and Reference Book for Pupils and Teachers in Community Schools for Adult Beginners. This book would be revised again and again to include lessons in arithmetic as well “to enable the adult pupil to address the problems that came up in everyday life and to solve them with accuracy and intelligence.” (Alston, 2017, p.190)

Influence of the Illiteracy Movement

            At the same time of the Americanization movement, there were those leading the cause for native-born literacy to be at the forefront of attention – not just foreign-born, as was the focus of the Americanization movement. This movement was known as the Illiteracy Movement. (Stitch, 2007)

When mentioning the grassroots leaders of the illiteracy movement, one must include Cora Wilson Stewart and, following in her footsteps, Elizabeth Cleveland Moss (as mentioned above).  Stewart was among those who contested the NEA’s name the Department of Immigration Education due to its focus solely on foreign-born illiterates, as opposed to all illiteracy.

            Stewart was motivated to end illiteracy in the U.S.  These efforts began with the development of Moonlight Schools throughout the state of Kentucky in 1911. Not only did Stewart recognize the need for adult literacy, but she also recognized that adults needed materials appropriate for adults and their learning needs. She developed a reading curriculum based off of the news. Furthermore, she began teaching literacy with teaching adults to write their own names. She believed this would give them the confidence they needed to progress in their efforts to become literate.

            Stewart also started the National Illiteracy Crusade whose efforts were aimed “to wipe out illiteracy by 1930.” (Stitch, 2007, p.16)

            The mission continued to grow. Stewart gained the attention of the governor of Kentucky, who was inspired to begin an illiteracy commission in 1914. In 1918, Stewart caught the attention of the NEA president Mary C.L. Bradford who then established a committee on illiteracy.

            Meanwhile, Moss helped to publish reference books and bulletins aimed at helping teachers of adult immigrants and native illiterates. In 1927 and 1928, a two-part bulletin was released that “Teachers of both foreign-born and native-born adult illiterates found material of value.” (Alston, 2017, p.193)

By 1929, the illiteracy movement had gained national attention.  This led to President Herbert Hoover appointing the National Advisory Committee on Illiteracy. Unfortunately, this was the same year stock market crashed. (America's Best History, 1920-1929) The crash lead to the Great Depression, and once again the focus shifted from Americanization and illiteracy to the “conservation of human resources.” (Stitch, 2007, ps. 16-17)

Influence of the Human Resources Conservation Movement

            When the stock market crashed in 1929, this marked the beginning of the Great Depression, and the development of the New Deal. The New Deal brought with it a plethora of programs aimed at providing education towards employment as well as employing teachers to do the educating. Of the programs developed, there are two worthy of note here. Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) in 1933, the Works Progress Administration (WPA) in 1935.

            The CCC was developed to provide programs for unemployed and undereducated men. The WPA was to provide work for the unemployed teachers. Similar to Stewart’s creation of relevant materials, the WPA teachers created materials aligned to “adult-oriented content on topics such as health, safety, work, and family life.” (Stitch, 2007, p. 17)

            Despite being able to claim more than 1 million people had been taught to read and write, the WPA was ended in 1941 because of the demand for workers due to the WWII.

            It was at this time that (then General) Dwight D. Eisenhower voiced his concern “that poorly educated, functionally illiterate adults were a threat to national security, a drain on America’s industrial productivity, and a general waste of human talent.” (Stitch, 2007, p. 17)

            The education of adults switched focus from “Americanization” and a fight against illiteracy, and became one of necessity for the well-being of the industrial productivity and safety of America. This movement would take on greater force in the 50s.

Implications

            The most obvious implications from the above period of time is the influence that remains in modern day ABE programs. The standardization of tests, fight for professional recognition and need for the field of adult education, as well as the struggle between foreign-born education versus native-born, and the lingering effects of the Human Resource Conservation are all still prevalent today.

Standardized tests are still used for both native-born and foreign-born to measure their literacy and quite often – though determined inappropriately – their intelligence. These tests and the “measurable skills gains” made on them are what determine federal funding for the continuation of adult education programs.

The fight for legitimacy of adult education and its professionals can be seen if one were to study the constant battle ground that is legislative movements in regards to funding of adult education as well as under which department it is held - the Department of Education versus the Department of Workforce Development.

The current status of adult education under the Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) can be directly linked the ideas of the Human Resource Conservation movement. The goal of WIOA and similar funding streams (such as Integrated Education and Technology – IET) is not only to bind adult education programs to provide services that provide education in areas of soft skills and workforce development, but also necessitate that technical trainings are linked to the needs of the state and federal government – giving further evidence of this concept of humans as resources.

Social Background	First ever US Census, WWI, WWII, Great Depression
Highlights	1.     Seeking professionalization of AE as a broad, liberal educational component of the national educational system 2.     Seeking education for the least educated/literate adults. 3.     Seeking the conservation of human resources to enhance America’s security and increase the industrial productivity of the nation by giving education and job training to adults living in poverty.
Influential Factors	Organizations: US Military, National Education Association (NEA), Carnegie Foundation, Association for Adult Educatoin (AAAE), American Library Association (ALA) Movements: Americanization Movement, Illiteracy Movement, Human Resources Movement People: Cora Wilson Stewart, Mary C.L. Bradford, Elizabeth Cleveland Morriss, Frederick P. Keppel, Dwight D. Eisenhower
Implications	Movements and motivations from this period can still be seen in today’s ABE atmosphere, funding, and legislation.

References:

Alston Jones Jr., P.  Elizabeth Cleveland Morriss (1877-1960), Leader of the Literacy and Adult Elementary Education Movement in North Carolina. Information & Culture, [s. l.], v. 52, n. 2, p. 186–206, 2017. Retrieved from ttp://search.ebscohost.com.proxy.bsu.edu/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=122997537&site=ehost-live&scope=site

America's Best History Timeline. (2019). Retrieved from https://americasbesthistory.com/abhtimeline.html

Carnegie Corporation of New York: Historical Note. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://library.columbia.edu/libraries/rbml/units/carnegie/ccny/history.html

Education and Training. (2013, November 21). Retrieved from https://www.benefits.va.gov/gibill/history.asp

Jarvis, P. (1987). Twentieth century thinkers in adult education. London: Croom Helm.

Merriam, S. B., & Brockett, R. G. (2007). The Profession and Practice of Adult Education: An Introduction. John Wiley & Sons. Chapter 3.

Sticht, T. G. (2007, July 27). The Rise of the Adult Education and Literacy System in the United States: 1600-2000. Retrieved from http://ncsall.net/index.html@id=576.html

Stubblefield, H. W., & Keane, P. (1994). Adult education in the American experience: From the colonial period to the present. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.